water treatment

Stanford University PhD student Gina Kittleson is exploring how adaptive water planning can help communities prepare for future droughts while keeping infrastructure costs and water rates manageable.

How can water utilities prepare for droughts that may become more severe or unpredictable without investing in infrastructure they may rarely need? For Kittleson, answering this question involves mathematical modeling, innovative water management strategies, and collaboration with the professionals responsible for delivering water to communities.

Kittleson studies how water infrastructure planning can better meet community needs by accounting for variability in future water conditions. Her research examines how conservation measures, regional coordination, and diverse infrastructure options can work together to help maintain reliable water supplies across a range of possible drought scenarios.

“My current work combines my love of math and my desire to make a positive difference in my community,” she said. “The passionate conservationist that I was in elementary school would be pretty dazzled at the work I get to do now.”

Planning for Drought Without Overbuilding

Water utilities must make decisions that may affect communities for decades, even though future drought conditions are difficult to predict. Building enough capacity to withstand every conceivable scenario could be prohibitively expensive, increasing water rates even during wet periods when additional supplies are not needed.

Kittleson examines how different technologies, infrastructure configurations, and operational policies can help utilities prepare for a range of possible futures without investing in more infrastructure than necessary.

One focus is on whether water conservation can complement or replace decentralized water infrastructure systems during drought emergencies. Her preliminary findings suggest that conservation can be a cost-effective alternative, depending on how measures are implemented and how communities respond. By examining when conservation and decentralized infrastructure work best individually or together, she hopes to help utilities identify strategies suited to their specific needs.

Bringing PLAN Water Beyond Academia

Funded by the Stanford Sustainability Accelerator, Kittleson’s current project focuses on expanding the practical application of PLAN Water (PLanning Adaptive Non-traditional Water), a computational tool and planning framework to support adaptive water infrastructure planning.

PLAN Water is designed to help planners evaluate infrastructure investment options and identify cost-effective strategies for maintaining reliable water supplies during droughts. By comparing different technologies and system configurations, the framework can help utilities consider alternatives that might otherwise be overlooked in conventional planning approaches.

Kittleson’s research includes case studies in the city of Santa Barbara as well as San Luis Obispo County, California. These applications will help generate findings relevant to local long-term planning efforts while informing a framework that could eventually be adapted for other utilities.

An important next step is making PLAN Water’s underlying code modular and transferable, creating a more plug-and-play framework that utilities can adapt without having to rebuild the system from scratch.

Grounding Research in Practitioner Experience

A central part of Kittleson’s work is listening to the people who will ultimately use the research. Through her Sustainability Accelerator project, she has interviewed approximately 30 people across consulting, policymaking, and utility sectors.

These conversations have helped Kittleson connect academic research with the practical realities of water management, providing insight into how utilities evaluate risk, what technologies are feasible in their communities, and what barriers may prevent promising solutions from being adopted.

She also emphasizes making mathematical findings accessible to the people who may use them. By understanding when advanced mathematics is necessary and when a simpler approach will suffice, Kittleson hopes to ensure that her research is both technically useful and understandable to practitioners.

Working Together To Improve Water Planning

As she continues her doctoral research, Kittleson plans to apply PLAN Water to San Luis Obispo, refine its modular design, and explore how the framework can be adapted to other utilities. She is also interested in working with consultants and policymakers to identify opportunities for pilot applications and potential funding.

Kittleson welcomes engagement from the NAWi Alliance community as she continues developing PLAN Water. Utility professionals can share the challenges they face in long-term drought planning, while researchers and consultants can offer perspectives on potential applications, complementary technologies, and ways to improve the framework.

Those interested in sharing their feedback, discussing a potential use case, or exploring collaboration are encouraged to contact Kittleson by email at .

For Kittleson, the value of this work lies in putting mathematics and research to use in ways that reflect the needs of the communities they are designed to serve.

A Rice University-led research team is developing a new membrane-based process to recover copper from mining process waters, a step that could make metal extraction more efficient while improving water treatment and reuse at mines.

The project focuses on ion-selective nanofiltration, a pressure-driven separation process that uses specially designed membranes to pull copper ions out of complex water streams. Researchers say the effort advances membrane technology for the recovery of specific ions from complex waste streams and is intended to produce a continuous-flow, economically viable approach to copper recovery.

At the heart of the work is the design of ion-selective membranes and coatings that favor copper over other dissolved metal ions. These membranes are produced by functionalizing the surface of a membrane with a metal chelating ligand that binds specifically to Cu. The strong ion-specific selectivity of the ligands is translated to permselective transport of Cu through the membrane, while other smaller and larger ions are impeded or blocked from passing through the membrane. The researchers plan to extend these findings towards the design of other membranes selective to a variety of critical materials, such as Ga, Cd, and rare earth elements.

If successful, the technology could help copper recovery reach “pipe parity” with conventional treatment or reuse approaches for mining process waters at copper mines and refineries, while also improving environmental sustainability.

Check out the project research brief for more information.

This research effort led by Carollo Engineering and NAWI is bringing artificial intelligence and advanced controls to potable water reuse, aiming to cut energy and costs while boosting reliability at reverse osmosis (RO)-based advanced treatment facilities. The project targeted “pipe parity” with conventional water supplies by testing and deploying machine learning (ML)–enabled fault detection and process control across integrated RO treatment trains.

Utilities in drought-prone regions increasingly rely on advanced purification of municipal wastewater to produce high-quality drinking water. RO-based advanced treatment (RBAT) is proven to robustly remove pathogens and chemicals, but in many locations remains nearly ten times more expensive and ten times more energy-intensive than conventional sources. While some processes feature embedded advanced controls, these are often not integrated across the full treatment train and can miss upstream–downstream interactions—leaving an opportunity for system-wide optimization using ML and AI.

The project’s approach began with a desktop evaluation of five fault detection and process control methods using high-frequency sensor data from partner utilities. Methods that could deliver at least 10% energy savings, 20% cost savings, or 50% improved reliability were advanced to demonstration at two RO-based potable reuse facilities operated by Las Virgenes Municipal Water District (LVMWD) and Orange County Water District (OCWD). A cloud-based, semi-autonomous architecture generated alerts for safer, more efficient operations.

Results show the promise of smart monitoring that reduces nuisance alarms while maintaining public health protection. For RO integrity, the team developed a non-parametric Shewhart Sign Chart to track pathogen removal performance using online surrogates, which can be skewed by outlier readings. With a rolling 12-hour window, the method detects true events within three hours and cuts false alarms by more than 50% compared with single-point alarms—meeting a key Reliability & Availability pipe parity metric. The approach was implemented via a real-time cloud dashboard at OCWD.

The researchers also tackled a long-standing operational challenge: real-time management of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), a critical disinfection byproduct with no commercial online sensor. Because UV/advanced oxidation (UV/AOP) has typically been operated conservatively based on historical NDMA highs, the team trained supervised ML “soft sensors” to predict influent NDMA using existing plant data. Using a hybrid statistical–ML approach and principal component analysis to handle highly correlated RO features, support vector machines successfully predicted NDMA levels. Simulations indicate the site could reduce UV dose by 21–29% while still achieving a 0.69 ng/L NDMA target, depending on the chosen factor of safety. Data from a second site revealed differences in seasonal and daily NDMA patterns between sites, underscoring the importance of site-specific control.

Beyond cutting energy and chemical consumption, the project aimed to increase uptime and operator support, improve detection of declining water quality, and avoid unnecessary shutdowns—outcomes that strengthen public confidence in purified water. Scale-up via cloud dashboards and semi-autonomous controls could make potable reuse systems more resilient and responsive to changing influent conditions across the full treatment train.

The effort brought together partners from Baylor University, Oregon State University, OCWD, LVMWD, National Water Research Institute, West Basin Municipal Water District, Yokogawa, and others, and was coordinated with NAWI’s Advanced Process Controls initiative.

Check out the recording of our informational webinar and the project poster for more information on this project.

A research team led by the University of California, Berkeley and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory has developed a low-cost, autonomous electrochemical advanced oxidation process (AOP) that targets trace organic contaminants and simultaneously disinfects water—without added chemicals. The approach is designed to overcome long-standing barriers to deploying AOPs in small, distributed systems such as household recycling, industrial wastewater treatment, and groundwater remediation.

The project addresses limitations of conventional treatment methods. Sorbent-based systems like activated carbon can struggle with polar, low molecular weight contaminants (e.g., 1,4-dioxane, 1,2,3-trichloropropane) and create spent media disposal challenges. Meanwhile, the widely used UV/H₂O₂ AOP often proves impractical at small scales due to reagent replenishment needs and the cost and fouling risk of submersed UV lamps. The team’s goal is to deliver “pipe parity” for non-traditional water sources by replacing multiple unit processes with a compact, electrified treatment cartridge.

At the heart of the innovation is a three-electrode system that generates and activates hydrogen peroxide in situ while directly oxidizing contaminants. A gas-diffusion cathode produces H2O2 from oxygen, a stainless-steel mesh cathode that converts H₂O₂ into hydroxyl radicals for powerful oxidation, and a boron-doped reduced graphene oxide (BDrGO) anode provides direct electrochemical oxidation. The team first optimized each step individually—anodic oxidation, O₂ reduction to H₂O₂, and H₂O₂ activation—before integrating them into a single flow-through treatment module.

Laboratory results show the integrated cartridge can exceed 90 percent contaminant removal in a single pass under optimized conditions. Key performance features include high Faradaic efficiency, complete utilization of generated H₂O₂ (no residual peroxide in the effluent), and self-regulating pH—an acidic pH prior to the final cathode favors hydroxyl radical generation, eliminating the need for external pH adjustment. Importantly for real-world use, testing indicated no chlorinated byproducts above regulatory standards in simulated surface water, addressing a common concern with oxidation processes.

The researchers also report strong electrode stability. Gas-diffusion cathodes maintained performance even in the presence of scaling: magnesium ions and hydrogen evolution promoted formation of a mineral layer that did not reduce efficiency, with hydrogen evolution creating channels that preserved permeability. The BDrGO anode helped suppress chlorinated byproduct formation during electrooxidation, while the stainless-steel cathode drove much of the contaminant removal by activating H₂O₂ to hydroxyl radicals. Optimization found that operating the gas-diffusion cathode at 4 mA increased H₂O₂ production and overall removal compared to 2 mA, and that running the stainless-steel cathode at 2 mA maximized hydroxyl radical formation without diverting H₂O₂ to water.

Cost and scalability figures position the system as a compelling alternative to under-sink reverse osmosis (RO). The prototype’s capital cost is about $309–$310—on par with common RO units—and projected operating costs are low, with energy at roughly $0.0325 per cubic meter and annual maintenance in the range of $67–$100. The cartridge avoids ion-exchange membranes and uses only electricity to drive treatment, enabling a zero-chemical-input design suited to distributed applications.

Beyond the lab-scale prototype, the project advances NAWI’s objectives in materials and manufacturing by aiming for robust, long-lasting electrodes and autonomous operation that adapts to variable influent water matrices. If successful, the technology could intensify and simplify treatment trains at small scale, helping communities tap non-traditional water resources where conventional systems are impractical.

For more on the project, view the project poster and research brief. You can also view this previously recorded webinar highlighting the project.

Bratin Sengupta’s interest in drinking water began early, witnessing as a child the struggle his mother faced finding clean water. He was left, in his own words, with the knowledge that water is “one of the most important resources available” – a conviction that propelled him to Argonne National Laboratory, where he works as a postdoctoral researcher.

Sengupta’s research includes the design and fabrication of novel materials for membrane- and adsorbent-based separation. His work at Argonne focuses on extending the lifespans of polymeric membranes used for water purification and dewatering crude oil-water emulsion, imparting antifouling properties using atomic layer deposition and sequential infiltration synthesis. The work builds on his Ph.D. research at the University at Buffalo – SUNY, where he fabricated inorganic thin film composite membranes for organic solvent nanofiltration and reverse osmosis.

Sengupta credits a strong and supportive community for inspiration on his path to Argonne. “All my mentors, starting from my undergraduate university in India to my graduate school and postdoc advisor, have contributed immensely to shape my scientific temperament,” he said. In addition to supportive lab mates, “my family, from my childhood, have believed in me.” Sengupta now helps inspire others as a student mentor himself.

The near-term goal for Sengupta is to influence the lab design of better membranes, particularly using atomic layer deposition to improve efficiency and longevity in polymeric membranes. His ultimate goal, however, is impacting real-world systems, particularly in regions with limited drinking water access. “Water, although a critical resource, is often not valued as a commercial product, which puts even more constraint on producing clean water at scale within economic bounds,” said Sengupta. “An energy efficient separation process is at the heart of making clean water, which involves making better materials for separation and designing smart processes.”

Outside of the lab, Sengupta enjoys art across media. He is an avid photographer, visits art museums, and is passionate about film and music.

This NAWI-funded led by Texas A&M University, focused on improving potable water reuse by developing an electrocoagulation/electrooxidation (EC/EO) treatment process for secondary-treated municipal wastewater. The project aimed to create a more streamlined and cost-effective treatment train capable of meeting strict public health requirements for controlling viruses while also reducing membrane fouling and reliance on hazardous treatment chemicals.

Currently, the “gold standard” potable reuse system involves multiple treatment stages, including microfiltration/ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, advanced oxidation, and disinfection and occasionally conventional coagulation for pretreatment. Traditional coagulation approaches involves transporting, storing, and handling corrosive chemicals. The project investigated iron-based electrocoagulation as an additional pretreatment alternative wherein a sacrificial iron anode released coagulant precursors directly into the water through electrochemical reactions, nearly eliminating the need for chemical dosing. Researchers further hypothesized that pairing electrocoagulation with electrooxidation can simultaneously remove viruses through coagulation and inactivate them through oxidative reactions.

The research team evaluated both iron-iron (Fe-Fe) and iron-carbon (Fe-C) electrode systems using batch and flow-through reactors designed to mimic municipal secondary wastewater effluent conditions. Key objectives included increasing virus mitigation, enhancing ultrafiltration productivity, reducing long-term electrode fouling/passivation, and performing technoeconomic analysis. The Fe-C EC/EO configuration showed the strongest performance. According to the project findings, the Fe-C system outperformed both Fe-Fe electrocoagulation and conventional ferric chloride coagulation by more than two orders of magnitude or two virus log reduction values (LRVs). At pH 6.5 and an iron dose of 20 mg/L, the Fe-C system achieved greater than 3-log virus reduction in under five minutes, while Fe-Fe systems required approximately ten minutes. Flow-through testing demonstrated that LRVs greater than 4 were achievable after about 20 minutes of flocculation.

The enhanced virus control appears to result from combined physical removal and oxidative inactivation mechanisms. Researchers identified electro-Fenton chemistry as an important contributor, with the Fe-C system producing hydrogen peroxide and reduced iron i.e., Fe(II), which generate reactive oxidative species capable of inactivating viruses. The project also developed electrochemical and kinetic models that successfully predicted concentrations of Fe(II), total iron, dissolved oxygen, and hydrogen peroxide during operation.

Another important aspect of the project was membrane pretreatment. Electrocoagulation pretreatment significantly reduced ultrafiltration fouling, particularly at pH 6.5, where large iron flocs improved water quality and ultrafilter performance. The team also addressed operational durability by using polarity reversal to reduce electrode passivation. Reversing electrode polarity helped dislodge fouling layers, restore operational voltage, improve Faradaic efficiency, and decrease energy consumption during long-term operation.

The project included collaborations among Texas A&M University, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Orange County Water District, WaterTectonics, and other industry and research partners. Advanced characterization tools such as electron microscopy, neutron scattering, matrix assisted laser desorption ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry, and X-ray spectrometry supported the research, while technoeconomic analysis evaluated the feasibility of up-scaling the technology. Preliminary analysis suggested that EC/EO systems may reduce capital costs (CAPEX), although operational costs (OPEX) could increase.

Overall, the project demonstrated that iron-based EC/EO systems are promising alternatives to conventional coagulation and can increase virus LRVs during potable reuse applications. If successfully optimized at scale, these modular and electrified treatment systems could lower pretreatment costs, improve system resiliency, reduce hazardous chemical use, and support broader adoption of potable water reuse technologies.

Inland brackish groundwater desalination has the potential to expand water supplies in water-scarce areas, but adoption is constrained by the high costs and environmental impacts of concentrate (brine) disposal. Brine valorization—selectively extracting marketable products from desalination brines—offers a pathway to offset disposal costs, reduce environmental impacts, and improve economic feasibility. The challenge is that market potential depends both on technical recoverability of constituents and the ability of local or regional markets to absorb them.

To combat this challenge, a team of NAWI researchers, led by Alison Fritz at the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), along with Alexander Dudchenko (SLAC), Casey De Finnda (UC Davis), and Meagan Mauter (Stanford), focused on two objectives. First, to develop a geospatially resolved market assessment that identified existing and potential markets for bulk constituents by pairing brine composition and expected volumes with market data on building materials, fertilizer, road salts, and chemicals, including caustic soda and hydrochloric acid. Second, to conceptualize and develop process models for brackish groundwater treatment and valorization and perform an economic and life cycle assessment of the proposed treatment.

To achieve the first goal, the project team used the U.S. Geological Survey brackish water databases to quantify volume and composition of groundwater sources across the United States. By pairing this volume and composition data with regional market demand for building materials, fertilizers, road salts, and industrial chemicals, the team conducted mass balances to determine how much recovered material local markets could realistically absorb. Next, to model the performance and costs of these prospective systems, they used NAWI’s WaterTAP platform to construct a digital reference treatment train. They then built a superstructure optimization model capable of evaluating the costs of thousands of candidate process configurations for treatment and valorization.

The preliminary optimization results indicate that in most scenarios, byproduct valorization is not the economically optimal configuration. The costs of the extraction schemes can outweigh the low market value of the recovered commodities. However, for certain water chemistries it can be valuable. For example, in highly saline scenarios, generating sodium chloride for road salt and hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide yielded outcomes that reduced net water treatment costs. The project also learned through stakeholder engagement that adaptable technologies that allow valorization decisions to follow market trends can improve the economics in volatile product markets.

Read the project brief and check out the project poster to learn more. To learn more about WaterTAP, register for NAWI’s upcoming webinar.

Conventional scale mitigation methods—anti-scalant addition, ion-exchange resins, and solvent extraction—require significant chemical or thermal inputs, which complicate brine management. While electrodialysis (ED) can potentially separate mono- and divalent ions, current membranes lack the selectivity needed for effective scaling control.

This project, led by Jovan Kamcev at the University of Michigan with partners at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and Veolia WTS, focuses on developing highly selective ion-exchange membranes to improve ED pretreatment for brackish water reverse osmosis (BWRO). The developed membranes could enable high-recovery BWRO processes that are chemical-free and energy-efficient, improving brackish water desalination sustainability and reducing concentrate management challenges.

These membranes were tested in bench-scale ED systems to determine their ability to reduce scaling potential in RO processes. Process modeling was employed to optimize operational parameters, including water recovery and energy consumption, for maximum efficiency.

Testing revealed that divalent-selective single-layer membranes achieved Ca²⁺/Na⁺ selectivity values of approximately 4 at low current densities, a performance level notably higher than that of commercial membranes. Monovalent-selective bilayer membranes exhibited extremely high Na⁺/Ca²⁺ selectivity across various brackish water chemistries; however, their ion transport fluxes were about an order of magnitude lower, reflecting the reduced limiting current density inherent to the design. Membranes featuring sulfonate and phosphate functional groups demonstrated the best Ca/Na separation factors under realistic brackish water compositions, indicating strong potential for practical scaling control.

Following bench-scale validation, the membranes will be scaled up for pilot plant demonstrations in collaboration with an industrial partner. A technoeconomic analysis will also be conducted to evaluate the commercial viability and overall feasibility of these pretreatment solutions.

The next phase will focus on conducting ED experiments using larger membrane stacks, with findings intended to calibrate the ED process model developed by WaterTAP. This progression marks a significant step toward bridging bench-scale insights with pilot-scale application readiness.

Access the project poster for more information.

Current reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes, which are often extremely delicate and thin, generally do not tolerate waters with suspended solids or high loadings of organics. Pretreatment is nearly always employed to reduce these contaminants which can foul or even abrade membranes. Current pretreatment approaches rely on decades-old technology, are expensive or chemically intensive, and can constitute a majority of the system footprint. They are also difficult to adapt for different treatment systems and typically struggle to entirely prevent fouling.

NAWI’s 5.22 project, “Printed Polyelectrolyte Complex (APEC) Membranes for Ultra-high Permeance Nanofiltration,” aims to create the first nanofiltration (NF) membranes for universal pretreatment. These NF membranes would streamline the pretreatment process to be more efficient across different types of treatment systems or water sources while simultaneously saving costs, energy, and treating more water with better output quality.

This project achieve this using a newly developed additive manufacturing process. This process, known as electrospray, which uses high voltage to induce fine, nano-scale sprays to deposit thin and defect-free layers of polymer electrolyte and produce multi-layered membranes with better control. This technique, called “electrospray additive manufacturing,” can form exceptionally thin (~10s of nanometers per layer or less) and defect-free films from any solution-processable polymer.

Electrospray is suited for forming amphiphilic polyelectrolyte complexes (APECs), which bring the positively and negatively charged polymers together to form a material that is both hydrophilic and hydrophobic. These specific properties of APECs create a stronger, adjustable material that better prevents fouling. By using numerous yet exceedingly thin bilayers, the goal of the research is to prevent membrane defects and make pretreatment more efficient, while creating NF membranes with the potential for 5-10 times higher permeance than commercial NF membranes made today.

NAWI has funded a number of pilot projects that are intended to demonstrate the scaling of new technologies from bench scale or laboratory prototypes to large—and often mobile—field-deployed systems on relevant waters at or near their source. One such pilot project, led by Purdue University, is looking at batch reverse osmosis (BRO).

BRO has been proposed as a more energy-efficient alternative to conventional reverse osmosis (RO), primarily due to the former’s ability to operate closer to the brine’s osmotic pressure during permeate production. In this work, David Warsinger and his team designed, constructed, and tested a pilot-scale conventional RO, closed-circuit RO (CCRO), double-acting reciprocating piston BRO, and bladder-based BRO configurations within the combined system. By using the same pilot system across all tests, the influence of variables such as feed water composition, membrane type, piping, and pump selection is minimized. The pilot system is fully operational and can automatically run using a LabView VI.

The system is designed to handle high-salinity water and is comprised of several components (e.g., check valves, 3-way valves, and 2-way valves). A 5-micron cartridge filter was installed to protect the RO membrane and remove small particles. A feed tank provides the necessary feed water to the system, while separate tanks are used to store the brine and permeate flows. Additionally, different sensors and transducers are used to monitor the main operational variables in the system such as flow rates, pressure, conductivity, pH and temperature.

Experimental results obtained with the pilot system were used to parameterize and validate a predictive model. This model discretizes the membrane module’s feed channel in both the axial and transverse directions to capture the effects of concentration polarization and pressure losses on system performance. By simulating the pressure evolution over time, this model can calculate the system’s specific energy consumption (SEC).

The system has operated continuously for over 900 hours, with seamless switching between configurations. To date, more than 800 million data points have been collected.

The pilot has been operated with different feed salinities (brackish and seawater) and a range of water fluxes and recovery ratios. Preliminary results support previous predictions, showing that CCRO and Batch RO outperform Conventional RO in energy efficiency and achievable recovery.

The results also show that the selected performance indicators are being met with minimal to no leaks observed at operating pressures of up to 1000 psi. Both SEC and the recovery ratio remained within 5% of initial values throughout testing, even after consecutive operating cycles.

For more information, access the project research brief.

A recent article in the Chemical Engineering Journal details a study of how electromagnetic field (EMF) technology can reduce mineral scaling in water treatment systems and why results vary across applications. Mineral deposits such as calcium carbonate, gypsum, and silica—often called scale—can coat pipes, heat exchangers, and membranes, reducing efficiency, blocking flow, and increasing maintenance and cleaning demands. Conventional chemical antiscalants can be effective but raise concerns about handling, cost, waste, and the long-term complexity of continuous dosing and system monitoring.

The study by NAWI researchers Pei Xu, Xuewei Du, Huiyao Wang, Yanxing Wang, Fangjun Shu, Lawrence Anovitz, Ke Yuan, and others, shows that EMF treatment can reduce scaling by influencing both minerals suspended in water and crystals growing on surfaces. Bench tests on heat-exchanger and membrane-distillation systems showed fouling dropped by 15–79%, while pilot and field studies in reverse osmosis systems saw scaling fall by 40–45%. EMF effectiveness is highly dependent on water chemistry, system configuration, and operating conditions, which helps explain why some systems see strong results and others see less benefit.

EMF works through two main mechanisms: homogeneous nucleation in the bulk solution and heterogeneous crystal growth on surfaces. The study also explores how EMF strength, frequency, waveform, and flow velocity affect outcomes. By combining pilot-scale experiments and modeling simulations, the study shows how adjusting these parameters can optimize performance for different water treatment setups.

EMF systems operate without chemicals, produce no secondary waste, and require minimal energy. Case studies in cooling towers and reverse osmosis systems show reduced cleaning downtime, energy savings, and longer water reuse before blowdown or discharge. The study notes that hybrid approaches, combining EMF with low-dose antiscalants, may further improve reliability and cost-effectiveness, but systematic testing is needed to confirm performance and compatibility.

The authors conclude that EMF shows real potential for chemical-free scale control, but its effectiveness depends on a clear understanding of how it affects mineral behavior in water and how deposits attach to surfaces. Although long-term, full-scale validation and standardized testing protocols are still needed, the study sheds light on the mechanisms and operational factors that drive performance. By clarifying how EMF interacts with different water chemistries and system conditions, the study highlights the circumstances under which EMF could provide a reliable, cost-effective approach to reducing mineral scaling in a range of water systems.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)—often called “forever chemicals”—are among the most stubborn contaminants found in drinking water today. Designed to resist heat, water, and degradation, these synthetic compounds persist in the environment and accumulate in the human body, making them notoriously difficult to remove using conventional treatment methods.

In a new study, researchers from the University of California Berkeley, the Colorado School of Mines, and Konkuk University in Seoul, and report a promising new approach: a family of porous polymer materials designed to rapidly and efficiently capture PFAS from water.

Rather than relying on a single material, the team developed a library of sponge-like adsorbents, each engineered with distinct chemical features intended to attract PFAS molecules. As contaminated water flows through the adsorbents, PFAS compounds bind to the material while clean water passes through. Testing the materials side by side allowed the researchers to directly compare how different chemical interactions embedded within the materials influence PFAS capture under realistic water conditions.

One clear trend emerged. Materials containing a positive charge were especially effective at drawing PFAS molecules in, highlighting electrostatic attraction as a key design principle for future PFAS adsorbents. Among the materials tested, one stood out for its performance—though the researchers emphasize that effectiveness alone is not enough.

The study also addresses a critical, and often overlooked, question in PFAS remediation: what happens after PFAS are removed from water? Captured PFAS must still be managed safely to avoid simply shifting contamination from one place to another. The researchers explore strategies for concentrating recovered PFAS so they can be more efficiently destroyed using emerging treatment technologies.

By considering adsorption and material regeneration together, this work underscores the importance of PFAS treatment solutions that function across the entire treatment lifecycle. Beyond demonstrating strong performance, the study provides practical design guidance for developing next-generation materials that are safer, more effective, and better suited for real-world water treatment systems.

As communities continue to grapple with widespread PFAS contamination, this research represents an important step toward technologies capable of addressing not just the presence of PFAS—but the full challenge of removing and ultimately eliminating them from water supplies.